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Class 3 unstable reactive gas is defined as a material that in itself is capable of detonation or explosive decomposition or reaction at normal temperatures and pressures with a strong initiating source or if heated under confinement. This class of gas readily undergoes violent chemical change at elevated temperatures and pressures.

References:NFPA 55: Compressed Gases and Cryogenic Fluids Code, 2016 Edition, Section 3.3.51.14.3;International Fire Code, 2015 Edition, Appendix E, Section E102.1.1

The minimum carbon dioxide design concentration for extinguishment of an ethylene fire is43%. This is based on the cup burner method, which is a standard test to determine the flame extinguishing concentration of a gaseous agent for a liquid fuel. Ethylene is a flammable gas that can form a liquid under pressure. The cup burner method involves placing a liquid fuel in a metal cup with a central nozzle, and flowing a gaseous agent through the nozzle to create a diffusion flame. The gaseous agent is gradually increased until the flame is extinguished.The minimum concentration of the gaseous agent required to extinguish the flame is recorded as the flame extinguishing concentration1.According to a study by NIST, the flame extinguishing concentration of carbon dioxide for ethylene was found to be 43%1.This value is also consistent with the NFPA 12 standard, which specifies the minimum design concentrations of carbon dioxide for various fuels, including ethylene2.

Critical radiant flux is used to classifyinterior floor finishes. Critical radiant flux is a measure of the minimum radiant heat energy required to sustain flame propagation on a floor material or covering. It is determined by exposing a specimen to a radiant heat gradient and observing the distance from the ignition point to the flame-out point.The shorter the distance, the higher the critical radiant flux and the better the fire performance of the floor material or covering1.Critical radiant flux is used to classify floor materials and coverings according to their fire hazard and resistance, and to specify the minimum requirements for different occupancies and applications2.For example, the International Building Code (IBC) requires that interior floor finishes and coverings in exit access corridors and exit enclosures have a critical radiant flux of not less than 0.45 W/cm2, while those in other spaces have a critical radiant flux of not less than 0.22 W/cm23.Critical radiant flux is also used to evaluate the fire safety of floor materials and coverings in transportation vehicles, such as aircraft, trains, and buses4.

25%

Explosions or fires from flammable gas or oil fuel vapor-air mixtures may be prevented by ventilation and controls that keep the flammable vapor content below 25% of the lower flammable limit (LFL) of the vapor-air mixture, according to the web search results. The LFL is the lowest concentration of a gas or vapor in air that can produce a flash of fire in the presence of an ignition source. Below the LFL, the mixture is too lean to burn. The LFL varies for different gases and vapors, and it is usually expressed as a percentage by volume of air at 25°C and atmospheric pressure. For example, the LFL of methane is 4.4%, which means that a mixture of methane and air with less than 4.4% methane cannot ignite. To prevent explosions or fires, the concentration of flammable gases or vapors should be kept below 25% of their LFL, which is equivalent to 1.1% methane in this case. Ventilation, natural or mechanical, is one of the methods to achieve this by diluting the flammable gases or vapors with fresh air.Controls, such as gas detectors, alarms, valves, and interlocks, are another method to monitor and regulate the flammable gas or vapor levels and prevent them from reaching dangerous concentrations1234

The types of overspray collectors associated with spray booths can be categorized into venturi scrubbers, waterfall scrubbers, dry filter, and cartridge filter. Venturi scrubbers use a high-velocity water spray to capture the overspray particles in a turbulent zone. Waterfall scrubbers use a curtain of water flowing over a perforated plate to wash down the overspray. Dry filter collectors use a series of filters, such as paper, fiberglass, or synthetic media, to trap the overspray. Cartridge filter collectors use pleated cartridges with high surface area and efficiency to capture the overspray. These collectors also have a self-cleaning mechanism that uses compressed air to dislodge the overspray from the cartridges.

References:Spray Booth Filters: Types and Selection;Spray Booths and Paint Finishing Operations;Spray Booth Filters: Types and Selection;Spray Booth Filters: Types and Selection;Spray Booth Filters: Types and Selection

Cellulose nitrate products begin to decompose at about 300 °F (150 °C). This is the temperature at which the nitrate ester bonds start to break down and release nitric acid, which further catalyzes the decomposition. The decomposition temperature depends on the nitrogen content, the stabilizers, and the external heating rate of the cellulose nitrate. Higher nitrogen content, lower stabilizer concentration, and faster heating rate lower the decomposition temperature and increase the risk of thermal runaway.

References:Nitrocellulose - Wikipedia;Comparative analysis of stable decomposition and combustion kinetics of nitrated cellulose;Degradation of aged nitrocellulose investigated by thermal analysis methods;Nitrocellulose;Effect of stabilizers and nitrogen content on thermal properties of nitrocellulose

Cellulose nitrate products begin to decompose at about 300 °F (150 °C). This is the temperature at which the nitrate ester bonds start to break down and release nitric acid, which further catalyzes the decomposition. The decomposition temperature depends on the nitrogen content, the stabilizers, and the external heating rate of the cellulose nitrate.Higher nitrogen content, lower stabilizer concentration, and faster heating rate lower the decomposition temperature and increase the risk of thermal runaway.

References:Nitrocellulose - Wikipedia;Comparative analysis of stable decomposition and combustion kinetics of nitrated cellulose;Degradation of aged nitrocellulose investigated by thermal analysis methods;Nitrocellulose;Effect of stabilizers and nitrogen content on thermal properties of nitrocellulose

The ratio of the weight of a solid or a liquid substance to the weight of an equal volume of water is referred to asspecific gravity. Specific gravity is a dimensionless quantity that is defined as the ratio of the density of a substance to the density of the water at a specified temperature.The density of water at 4 0C is commonly used as a reference point1. Specific gravity can be calculated using the following formula:

SG=fracrhosubstance​rhoH2​O​

where rhosubstance​ is the density of the substance and rhoH2​O​ is the density of water. Specific gravity can be used to compare the relative densities of different substances and to determinewhether a substance will sink or float in water.A substance with a specific gravity less than 1 will float in water, while a substance with a specific gravity greater than 1 will sink in water2.

For example, the specific gravity of gold is 19.3, which means that gold is 19.3 times denser than water. Therefore, gold will sink in water. The specific gravity of ice is 0.92, which means that ice is 0.92 times denser than water. Therefore, ice will float in water.

References:

• Specific gravity | Formula, Units, & Equation | Britannica
• Specific Gravity - Definition, Calculation, Solved Examples, FAQs - BYJU’S

Zebra mussel

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The correct answer is B. Zebra mussel pipe obstructions are largely concentrated around the Great Lakes and Mississippi River areas. Zebra mussels are an invasive species that originated from Eurasia and were introduced to North America in the late 1980s through the ballast water of ships. They have since spread to many freshwater lakes and rivers, especially in the Midwest and Northeast regions of the United States and Canada. Zebra mussels can attach themselves to hard surfaces, such as pipes, pumps, valves, and filters, and form dense colonies that reduce or block the water flow. This can cause serious problems for industries, utilities, and municipalities that rely on water intake or delivery systems.Zebra mussels can also damage aquatic ecosystems, infrastructure, and recreation by competing with native species, altering water quality, and fouling boats and equipment12345

According to the Consumer Products Safety Commission (CPSC), the most common type of fabric used on upholstered furniture is cellulosic. Cellulosic fabrics are made from natural fibers derived from plants, such as cotton, linen, rayon, and hemp. Cellulosic fabrics account for about 51% of the total fabric weight used on upholstered furniture in the United States1. Cellulosic fabrics are popular because they are soft, comfortable, breathable, and versatile. However, they are also highly flammable and can contribute to the spread of fire if ignited2. Therefore, the CPSC has established a flammability standard for upholstered furniture that requires cellulosic fabrics to pass a smolder resistance test3. References:

• Upholstered Furniture Business Education | CPSC.gov
• Fire Fighting Foams - Chemguard
• Standard for the Flammability of Residential Upholstered Furniture

Fire pump

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A suction in-line fire pump has a pressure range that can exceed 300 psi (2,068 kPa). This type of pump is a centrifugal pump that is installed in a vertical position with the suction and discharge connections in the same line. The pump is designed to handle high pressures and flows, and it is suitable for high-rise buildings and other applications that require high head.According to NFPA 20, Standard for the Installation of Stationary Pumps for Fire Protection, a suction in-line fire pump can have a rated pressure of up to 360 psi (2,482 kPa)1.The other types of fire pumps mentioned in the question have lower pressure ranges, as shown in the table below2:

Type of fire pump

Pressure range (psi)

Pressure range (kPa)

Horizontal-end suction

40 to 150

276 to 1,034

Split case

40 to 150

276 to 1,034

Vertical turbine

40 to 150

276 to 1,034

Suction in-line

40 to 360

276 to 2,482

References:NFPA 20: Fire pump design | Consulting - Specifying Engineer;Understanding the Basics of Fire Pumps | Pumps & Systems

Fire alarm systems audible appliances ratings are usually stated as a sound pressure level (SPL) at 10 ft (3.05 m) from the appliance. The SPL is measured in decibels (dB) and indicates the loudness of the sound produced by the appliance. The SPL at 10 ft (3.05 m) is used as a standard reference point for comparing different audible appliances and for designing fire alarm systems to meet the required audibility levels.References:

• NFPA 72: National Fire Alarm and Signaling Code, 2019 Edition, Section 18.4.3.11
• Fire Protection Handbook, 20th Edition, Volume 1, Chapter 7, Section 7.8.2.12

The maximum allowable number of clients for a family day-care home varies by state and territory, but generally ranges from four to six children unrelated to the operator. A family day-care home is a facility in which a small group of children receive child care services in the provider’s own home, such as a house, apartment, or condo unit1. To ensure a safe care environment, states and territories use child care licensing regulations to limit the number of children, as well as the number of infants and toddlers, that can receive care in a family day-care home1. Some states and territories may also offer certification or registration to help ensure some basic health and safety standards in certain home-based child care programs1. To learn more about how your state or territory regulates family day-care homes, you can visit the child care consumer education website and child care resource and referral agency for your state or territory1. References:

• Family Child Care Homes | Childcare.gov

The correct answer is B. After an emergency incident has occurred, a post-incident critique of the emergency preparedness procedure should be conducted covering the detection of the incident, implementation of incident command, andnotification, alerting and warning procedures. These are some of the key elements of an effective emergency response that need to be evaluated and improved after an incident.A post-incident critique is a systematic review of the actions and decisions taken during an emergency incident, with the aim of identifying lessons learned, best practices, gaps, and corrective actions1.A post-incident critique should involve all the relevant stakeholders, such as emergency responders, emergency managers, facility managers, and affected community members2.A post-incident critique should also follow a structured format, such as the one suggested by the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA)3:

• Introduction: The facilitator introduces the purpose, objectives, ground rules, and agenda of the critique session.
• Incident Overview: The facilitator provides a brief summary of the incident, including the date, time, location, type, size, and impact of the incident.
• Timeline Review: The facilitator leads a chronological review of the major events and actions that occurred during the incident, using a timeline or a log as a reference.
• Strengths and Areas for Improvement: The facilitator solicits feedback from the participants on what went well and what needs to be improved, focusing on the following topics:
• Action Plan: The facilitator summarizes the main findings and recommendations from the critique session, and assigns responsibilities and deadlines for implementing the corrective actions.
• Conclusion: The facilitator thanks the participants for their contributions, and provides information on how the results of the critique will be documented and shared.

According to NFPA 72, the maximum sound pressure level (SPL) for a fire alarm system is 110 dBA at the minimum hearing distance from the audible appliance1.However, this limit can be exceeded if the sound pressure level measured 2 000 mm above floor level is not more than 100 dBA2. Sound pressure level is a measure of the intensity of sound at a given point in space, expressed in decibels (dB). The higher the SPL, the louder the sound.For comparison, a normal conversation is about 60 dB, a jet engine is about 140 dB, and a gunshot is about 160 dB3.References:Sound Pressure Levels - NFPA;NFPA fire alarm sound level - EntirelySafe.com;Subsection 907.5 - Occupantnotification systems - Casetext;How Loud Is a Fire Alarm In Decibels (dB)? With Noise Comparison Chart;The Ontario Building Code | Audibility of Alarm Systems.

According to the web search results, 79% of fire departments surveyed participate in the delivery of emergency medical services (EMS).This is based on the NFPA report “US Fire Department Profile 2020”1, which states that nationwide, 37% of fire departments provided no EMS, 46% provided basic life support (BLS), and 17% provided advanced life support (ALS). Therefore, the percentage of fire departments that provided either BLS or ALS is 46% + 17% = 63%. However, this does not include fire departments that provided EMS through a third-party contract or agreement.According to the NFPA fire service survey from 2018–20202, 16% of fire departments reported having such an arrangement. Therefore, the percentage of fire departments that participated in the delivery of EMS in some form is 63% + 16% = 79%.References:

• NFPA report - U.S.fire department profile3
• US Fire Department Profile 2020 Supporting Tables2

The removal of flammable vapors by displacement for cleaning a storage tank can be accomplished by displacement with air, inert gas, and water. Water is a common method of displacing flammable vapors from tanks, as it is readily available, inexpensive, and non-reactive with most fuels. Water can be sprayed into the tank to create a water seal that prevents the vapors from escaping and reduces the oxygen concentration in the tank. Water can also be used to rinse the tank walls and remove any residual fuel. However, water displacement may not be suitable for some tanks that contain water-sensitive or water-soluble fuels, or for tanks that have limited drainage or disposal facilities.

References:ust permanent closure requirements - Nevada;A Guide to Safety in Confined Spaces - CDC Stacks;Fire Explosion Prevention – Visual Encyclopedia of Chemical Engineering …

According to NFPA 400, Table 5.2.1.1.3, the maximum allowable quantity (MAQ) of a nonliquified oxidizing gas per control area in an unsprinklered area is 2000 ft3 (56 m3) when stored in a gas cabinet. This quantity can be increased by 100% if the area is sprinklered or by 300% if the area is also provided with a gas detection system. A gas cabinet is a ventilated enclosure for the storage of one or more compressed gas containers that provides a method of control for potential leakage or fire exposure hazards [NFPA 400, 3.3.32].References:NFPA 400, Table 5.2.1.1.3;NFPA 400, 3.3.32;NFPA 400, 5.2.1.1.3.1;NFPA 400, 5.2.1.1.3.2.

NFPA 484: Standard for Combustible Metals, 2020 Edition, provides requirements for the storage and handling of aluminum powders, flakes, and pastes. This standard covers the production, processing, finishing, handling, recycling, storage, and use of all metals and alloys that are in a form capable of combustion or explosion. It also covers operations where metal or metal alloys are subjected to processing or finishing operations that produce combustible powder or dust.NFPA 484 includes specific chapters for various metals and alloys, including aluminum and aluminum alloys12

References:

• NFPA 484: Standard for Combustible Metals
• NFPA 651: Standard for the Machining and Finishing of Aluminum and the …

Computers and other information technology equipment are particularly susceptible to heat, steam, and combustion products, which can damage their sensitive components, cause data loss or corruption, and impair their functionality.Therefore, fire protection for IT equipment should consider the potential sources of heat, steam, and combustion products, such as electrical faults, flammable liquids, dust accumulation, water-based sprinklers, or smoke from adjacent areas, and implement appropriate measures to prevent, detect, and suppress fires, as well as to minimize the exposure of IT equipment to these hazards1234.References:Standard for the Fire Protection of Information Technology Equipment;Fire Protection of Computer Rooms—Legal Obligations and Best Practices - ISACA;Exploring Requirements for Information Technology Equipment;Demystifying IT room protection requirements - Consulting.

An as built plan review is a type of plan review that may provide information about a modification such as the removal of an abandoned underground flammable liquid tank. An as built plan review is conducted after the construction or alteration of a building orsystem is completed and before the final approval or acceptance by the AHJ. An as built plan review verifies that the building or system conforms to the approved plans and specifications and complies with the applicable codes and standards. An as built plan review may also identify any changes or deviations from the original plans that occurred during the construction or alteration process, such as the removal of an underground tank.References:

• NFPA 1: Fire Code, 2018 Edition, Section 1.12.8.1.11
• Fire Protection Handbook, 20th Edition, Volume 1, Chapter 5, Section 5.2.3.42

According to NFPA 230: Standard for the Fire Protection of Storage, 2015 Edition, building codes should limit the size of an unsprinklered facility used for the processing and storage of Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) built of type V construction to 7,500 ft2 (697 m2). This is based on the assumption that the MSW has a heat release rate of 18,000 Btu/ft2-min (200 kW/m2) and a fire growth rate of 0.046 min-1.Type V construction is defined as a type of construction in which the structural elements, exterior walls, and interior walls are of any materials permitted by the code123

References:

• NFPA 230: Standard for the Fire Protection of Storage
• 5 Types of Construction per the IBC | Building Code Trainer
• 2.4 MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE LANDFILLS - U.S. Environmental Protection Agency

OSHA regulation 1910.110 addresses storage and handling of liquefied petroleum gas (LPG). This regulation covers the general requirements for the design, construction, installation, operation, inspection, and maintenance of LPG systems, including containers, piping, valves, fittings, regulators, burners, and appliances. The regulation also specifies the safety precautions and procedures for the prevention of fire and explosion hazards involving LPG. The regulation applies to all employers who store, handle, or use LPG in their workplaces.References:

• OSHA: 1910.110 - Storage and handling of liquefied petroleum gases1
• Nebula Safety: Storage & Handling of Liquefied Petroleum Gases (LPGs)2

The minimum width of a doorway in a means of egress to accommodate a person in a wheelchair is 32 inches (813 mm).This is based on the requirements of the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) and the International Building Code (IBC), which both specify that doors in a path of egress and doors on an accessible route must have a clear opening width of at least 32 inches (813 mm)12. This width allows enough space for a person in a wheelchair to maneuver through the doorway without difficulty. A wider doorway may be preferable for some types of wheelchairs or other assistive devices, but 32 inches (813 mm) is the minimum standard for accessibility and safety.References:DECODED: Calculating the Egress Width of Door Openings - I Dig Hardware;Digital Codes.

OSHA requires fire fighter training in hazardous materials, respiratory protection, and communicable diseases. According to OSHA standards, fire fighters must receive annual training in hazardous materials and infectious diseases, and initial and periodic training in respiratory protection. These topics are essential for fire fighters to protect themselves and others from exposure to harmful substances and pathogens.

References:OSHA training requirements for volunteer fire company personnel;What are the Current OSHA/PESH Training Requirement for Firefighters: A Review;Training requirements for firefighters;Training Requirements in OSHA Standards

Wet chemical extinguishing agents, such as potassium acetate and potassium citrate, when sprayed on a grease fire, extinguish the fire by smothering and cooling. The wet chemical agent reacts with the hot grease and forms a layer of soap-like foam on the surface of the fat, which acts as an insulation between the hot grease and the atmosphere, preventing the escape of combustible vapors and oxygen supply.The wet chemical agent also absorbs heat from the grease and lowers its temperature below the ignition point12

References:

• What is the Difference Between a Wet and Dry Chemical Fire …
• Wet Chemical (Class K) Fire Extinguisher - Portable - WFX

According to the web search results, titanium is the pure metal in its solid form in oxygen that has the highest ignition temperature in degrees Fahrenheit.The spontaneous-ignition temperature of titanium in the solid phase (below melting) is about 3020°F (1660°C)1.Aluminum, potassium, and zirconium have lower ignition temperatures in the solid phase, ranging from 1292°F (700°C) to 1652°F (900°C)23.References:

• IGNITION OF METALS IN HIGH PRESSURE OXYGEN2
• Combustion of Metals in Oxygen-Enriched Atmospheres3
• High-temperature oxidation and ignition of metals1

The safety class for propane refrigerant R-290 is A3, which means it has no toxicity but high flammability. The safety class is determined by the ASHRAE Standard 34, which assigns a capital letter (A or B) for the toxicity level and a number (1, 2, or 3) for the flammability level of a refrigerant. Propane has a very low global warming potential and ozone depletion potential, but it also has a very low flash point and high auto ignition temperature, which make it highly flammable in the presence of ignition sources.References:Propane R-290 | Copeland US;R-290 Propane Refrigerant Fact & Info Sheet;Safety Data Sheet - Refrigerants; NFPA Fire Protection Handbook, 21st Edition, Chapter 3, Section 3.3.4.

The data of a pre-incident plan should be evaluated after an incident, as part of the post incident critique or analysis. This is to assess the accuracy, completeness, and usefulness of the pre-incident plan, and to identify any changes or updates needed based on the lessons learned from the incident.Evaluating the pre-incident plan after an incident can also help improve the emergency response performance and the fire safety management of the site.References:123